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Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) is a government-initiated program in India that aims to “leave no one behind” in drinking water access. The program’s vision is that every rural household has a drinking water supply in adequate quantity of prescribed quality on a regular and long-term basis at affordable service delivery charges, through the provision of a ‘functional household tap connection’ (FHTC). The functionality refers to defined quantity, quality, pressure, and regularity of the water supply. The minimum service level recognized in JJM is 55 liters per capita per day (lpcd), with prescribed quality defined by BIS:10500 standard ('Bureau of Indian Standards – Drinking Water Specification'). Besides covering new areas for connections, the existing water connections should also be made JJM compliant. In groundwater rich areas, single village schemes (SVS) sourced from the local aquifers along with end-to-end source sustainability measures are encouraged. In places where groundwater is not abundant or affected by water quality issues, surface water-based multi-village schemes (MVS) are promoted. The program adopts a decentralized, demand-driven strategy with planning and management of the drinking water supply system as well as its underlying water resource delegated to the local community of users. Such a ‘bottom-up’ strategy is foreseen to lead to a ‘sense of ownership' and equity in water access in the local community, through the creation of an environment of transparency and trust. This would ultimately foster efficient implementation and greater sustainability of the schemes. JJM is implemented in the ‘mission-mode’ with clearly defined objectives, implementation timelines, milestones and measurable outcomes. The goals of JJM fall perfectly in line with the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, where target 6.1 aims to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030. JJM aims to fulfil this through 100% rural coverage in supplying ‘safe’ drinking water through FHTCs not only in households, but also in institutional settings such as schools, health facilities, and childcare centers (anganwadi). The cost of the FHTCs is supported by the program, along with small user delivery charges towards operation and maintenance, which makes the supply affordable for everyone. The drinking water supplied through JJM is meant for diverse domestic uses including drinking, cooking, food preparation and personal hygiene. In the context of global standards, rural drinking water supply through FHTCs lies at the highest service level of the ‘drinking water service ladder’ defined by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene. The highest level is called ‘Safely Managed Drinking Water Service’ which requires households to use an improved water source that should be located on premises, available when needed, and the supplied water to be free of fecal and priority chemical contamination. Since the inception of JJM in 2019, household-based tap water connections in rural India have expanded from a mere 18.3% to over 80% by 2025. This rapid upscale is a result of more than 122 million new household tap connections across different states in the country. Of these, Jharkhand is one where JJM has brought as many as 3.1 million new household tap water connections in villages, many of which are remotely placed and inhabited by tribal populations. Through JJM, the overall rural coverage has been raised from a mere 5.52% in April 2019 to 55.03% in June 2025. As many as 6961 Jharkhand villages have already achieved 100% coverage. JJM is centrally sponsored program, which means that a sizeable funding for its implementation is sourced from central government funds, with matching contributions from the concerned state. In the case of Jharkhand, the total project cost of JJM is Rs. 246653 million, which is shared on a 50:50 basis between the two governments for infrastructure and 60:40 for water quality checks. Total rural population to be covered under JJM in Jharkhand is 31.4 million, residing in 29398 villages, of which 7107 villages have more than 50% tribal population. The role of village water and sanitation committees (VWSCs) formed in all villages is crucial for ensuring sustainability of the schemes. VWSCs have minimum 50% members as women and proportionate representation of weaker sections of the society. A total of 97535 JJM schemes have been planned to serve the entire rural population. To understand the status of JJM in Jharkhand and contribute to improving the efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of the program as an instrument for ensuring ‘Water for All’ in the future, a field-based joint study was undertaken by the authors in March 2025.^* The districts included in the study were Seraikela-Kharsawan, Khunti, Gumla and Latehar, where a total of 28 villages were visited. Both SVS and MVS were included in the study, thereby considering both surface- and groundwater sources. The findings of the study are presented on Millennium Water Story in a series of photo articles. This is the first introductory article that aims to present an overview of how JJM is being implemented in Jharkhand. All the photographs presented in this article are from the district of Seraikela-Kharsawan, but the components of JJM described through them are common across the entire state. The title photo depicts the convenience brought to women residing in a village in the district where they now enjoy uninterrupted water access at home every day.

 

 

 

River as an important surface water source for multi-village schemes

 

When groundwater availability is limited or presents water quality challenges, and a good surface water source exists in the area, a number of adjacent villages may be served through a common multi-village scheme (MVS) fed by the source. As many as 279 MVSs are planned under JJM in Jharkhand, of which 33 are already completed and running. Several MVSs may be located along the course of a single river. The river shown in the above photo is the Subarnarekha.

 

 

 

The Intake Well of an MVS located in a riverbed

 

An MVS has 4 major components, namely the intake well, water treatment plant (WTP), elevated service reservoir (ESR) and the in-village distribution pipeline network. The Intake Well is the first part and the most essential one as the water source. Here, water is withdrawn from the riverbed – generally from subsurface bores that are drilled to different depths as required. The depth should be good enough to ensure that adequate supply is maintained even through the dry summer months.

 

 

 

Raw water transported through a pipe from the intake well to the WTP for treatment

 

The raw water abstracted from the Intake Well is transported through Ductile Iron (DI) pipes to a WTP which could be located a few kilometers away from the source.

 

 

 

A Water Treatment Plant (WTP) as part of an MVS

 

WTP is the second most important component of an MVS which aims to clean the raw water obtained from the river, converting it to potable water which should fulfil the prescribed quality parameters defined by BIS:10500 standard. Raw water is treated through a 6-step filtration process at the WTP, which is described below.

 

 

 

A Cascade Aerator at work in a WTP

 

The first step in the process of water treatment is aeration which aims to improve the water quality by increasing the dissolved oxygen content and removing undesirable gases and volatile compounds. This is achieved by bringing air into close contact with the raw water received from the river in a ‘cascade aerator’ as shown above.

 

 

 

Alum and lime solutions being added to the aerated water in a WTP

 

The second step is to add alum and lime to the aerated water to remove impurities and thus further improve the water quality. Alum acts as a coagulant, causing small particles to clump together, while lime adjusts the pH and aids in the coagulation process.

 

 

 

Alum and lime mixed water in a flocculation tank in a WTP

 

The aerated water containing the above liquids is next made to flow into a flocculation tank where a rotating winder thoroughly mixes these. This helps promote the aggregation of small, suspended particles and impurities into larger, heavier flocs that can settle out more easily. These flocs are to be later removed through sedimentation or filtration, resulting in clearer and safer drinking water.

 

 

 

A tube settler for the removal of suspended solids from water at a WTP

 

The water mixture from the flocculation tank is then made to flow into a ‘tube settler tank’ which facilitates sedimentation of the flocs. The ‘tubes’ at the bottom of the tank significantly increase the settling area within the sedimentation basin, allowing for more efficient removal of the suspended flocculated solids.

 

 

 

Supernatant obtained from the tube settler entering a filter medium tank at a WTP for removal of finer particles

 

The water from the tube settling tank is taken out through holes in the walls and made to enter a filter medium tank which contains sand and gravel filter beds. These filter beds play a crucial role in removing the finer suspended particles and impurities that remain behind after sedimentation through a process of physical filtration. The layered structure of sand and gravel act as a barrier, trapping larger particles as water flows through the media. This process enhances water clarity and removes visible contaminants, making the water safer for consumption.

 

 

Water from the filtration tank being mixed with bleaching powder solution at a WTP

 

As a final step of drinking water treatment, the water received from the filtration tank is subject to chlorination by mixing it with bleaching powder solution. Chlorination disinfects the water, killing harmful microorganisms, thus preventing waterborne diseases. This step is very important for ensuring water safety as it travels from the treatment plant through the pipes and reservoirs finally to the rural user’s tap.

 

 

 

Clear water sump containing the treated water at an MVS

 

The water emerging from the above treatment process is finally led into an underground ‘clear water sump’ where it is temporarily stored until it is pumped up to an elevated service reservoir (ESR) for distribution.

 

 

An ESR in an MVS from where a gravity-based drinking water supply is provided to connected villages

 

The treated drinking water from the WTP sump is pumped up to ESRs which are generally constructed at a height of 15 meters. This height helps provide adequate water pressure for distribution, though factors such as the terrain and the overall design of the water supply network can further influence the exact height. An MVS ESR has a considerably large water storage capacity and serves multiple villages.

 

 

A Single Village Scheme infrastructure showing an Overhead Tank lodged in a steel structure and solar power panels

 

In Jharkhand, a total of 97256 in-village Single Village Scheme (SVS) have been planned, which are sourced from local groundwater aquifers. In June 2025, about 60% of these are already completed. The SVS infrastructure typically comprises a borewell as the water source, pumping arrangement which is generally solar powered, an Overhead Tank (OHT) for storage and distribution of the abstracted water, and the piped water distribution network. The OHT and its structure can be of two kinds: plastic tank mounted on steel structure and fully Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) structure for higher capacities. The former type is meant for smaller capacity tanks of 2000 and 5000 liters, which are designed to serve 1-10 and 11-20 households respectively.

 

 

A higher capacity SVS comprising an OHT made of RCC, operated by a solar-powered motor

 

For serving larger number of households, OHTs and their pillars are fully made of RCC. An 8000- liters OHT is designed to serve 21-40 households while a 12000-liters tank serves 41-60 households. The largest capacity OHT is 16000 liters which is also an RCC structure and serves 61-80 households. A Remote Monitoring System (RMS) is installed on every SVS which helps monitor the hours of operation and the number of households supplied. If water quality is a problem, then the extracted water is first collected in a sump, then passed through an on-site water treatment plant, and finally the treated water is distributed.

 

 

A borewell serving as the water source of an SVS

 

Groundwater supply in SVS is taken from borewells, the depth of which depends upon the size of the scheme. For 2000- or 5000-liters OHTs, the prescribed borewell depth is 60m, operated using a 1HP motor, powered by 3 solar panels. For the 8000- and 12000-liters tanks, the prescribed borewell depth is 90m. The former is filled using one 2HP motor powered by 6 solar panels, while the latter is filled by 2 1HP motors. Both these kinds of motors are powered by 6 solar panels. The 16000-liters tank is sourced from a depth of 120m, where the motor is 2HP, powered by 12 solar panels. Existing functional hand pumps can also be used as SVS source, which are allowed to be deepened in order to meet the service delivery level. The motor operation in all cases is automatic, shutting off when the tank gets filled.

 

 

 

Information board at an SVS, displaying contact details of the construction agency, besides other scheme-related information

 

Every MVS and SVS infrastructure is required to publicly display all necessary information about the scheme and contact details of the construction agency. The latter is also responsible for the operation and maintenance of the scheme for the first 5 years, after which the scheme will be managed at the community scale. Daily operation of most of the SVSs is already taken care of by the users themselves while the MVSs are fully operated by the agency. Contact details are necessary for forwarding complaints regarding breakdowns, so that timely repairs can be arranged, in turn ensuring a reliable water supply.

 

 

 

A functional household tap connection (FHTC) for supplying drinking water at home

 

The water from an OHT is supplied to every household in the scheme through a distribution pipeline leading to an FHTC. The pipeline network should be laid out at a minimum of 1 m below the ground level in order to minimize undue damage. The FHTC should be in the form of a standpost comprising of a platform with a drainage facility, a protective supporting structure for the pipe and the tap, and the tap itself.

 

 

 

 

Collecting drinking water from an FHTC supplied by an MVS

 

JJM in general aims to alleviate the burden of rural women and girls in procuring water for day-to-day use, and therefore the FHTC is extremely important. A fully functional household tap connection should provide a minimum of 55 lpcd potable water round-the-year daily. This is foreseen to bring 'ease of living' in rural communities.

 

 

An SVS-fed tap supplying safe drinking water in a household belonging to a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG)

 

JJM promotes equitable water access by paying special attention to the deprived sections of society. One such section is that of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). In Jharkhand, PVTGs comprise approx. 3% of the tribal population and they often lack access to adequate safe drinking water sources because their hamlets at isolated locations. The number of PVTG households in the state is 76575, distributed across 3636 hamlets. PVTGs have been closely targeted in JJM for provision of FHTCs through SVSs even for as few as 5-10 household-based hamlets, bringing drinking water access to women at home.

 

 

A Jal Sahiya - a grassroots-level woman volunteer showing her ‘Field Test Kit’ for testing water quality

 

In Jharkhand, a crucial functionary at the village level is the Jal Sahiya who acts as a bridge between JJM and the local community. They are selected from the local community and play a crucial role in spreading awareness about the program, identifying target households, facilitating the process of getting water connections and record-keeping. They are also trained in minor repairs and water quality testing. They receive an honorarium for their work, which presently stands at Rs. 2000 per month. Five women from each village have also been trained to test water quality. In fact, community-level water testing carried out by the Jal Sahiya (or other trained village women) is the starting point of the Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance (WQMS) which is a crucial component of JJM for ensuring the availability of safe drinking water. In WQMS, water quality testing is ensured at the source, after water treatment, or before distribution and finally at the delivery point. Towards this end, NABL (National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories) accredited labs have been set up in all 24-district headquarters of the State which are responsible for conducting routine water quality tests at regular intervals.

 

 

 

Some members of a Village Water and Sanitation Committee (VWSC) responsible for various tasks related to JJM at the community scale

 

The most significant institutional unit for implementing JJM at the community scale is the Village Water and Sanitation Committee (VWSC). This is a 12-member body that includes representatives from the Gram Panchayat (village-level local government) and other community members. A key member is the Jal Sahiya, who also acts as the treasurer. VWSCs are responsible for various tasks related to JJM, such as planning, implementation, operation and maintenance of drinking water supply schemes. They are responsible for ensuring that the JJM schemes within their jurisdiction function effectively and sustainably. Regular Gram Sabhas (village assembly meetings) are conducted to ensure the participation of villagers in the ownership of the schemes.

 

 

A wall painting presenting an IEC message for creating local awareness towards water conservation

 

Information, education and communication (IEC) is an important component of JJM which aims at building capacities of local communities to own, manage, operate and maintain their in-village water supply systems. This is to be attained primarily by driving positive behavioral changes with respect to judicious use of water, safe water handling and storage, ownership of water supply system, etc. Towards this end, wall paintings, roughly in a size 6x2 feet, are to be displayed at important locations in the local communities, an example of which can be seen in the above photo.

 

 

 

 

 

This photo article elaborates on the implementation of JJM with a focus on the state of Jharkhand. Action for implementation in the state was initiated in 2019. According to information from the Drinking Water and Sanitation Department, a ‘bottom-up’ approach has been adopted in implementing the program where first of all, Village Action Plans (VAPs) were prepared at the village level through Gram Panchayats and VWSCs. Thereafter, based on the VAPs, District Action Plans (DAPs) were prepared and subsequently revised by District Water and Sanitation Missions (DWSM) in every district. Based on the DAPs, the State Action Plan was prepared by the State Water and Sanitation Missions (SWSM). This was followed by planning of SVS & MVS schemes based on the availability of ground and surface water, and preparation of Detailed Project Reports for each scheme which were later approved at the state level. Finally, construction of the schemes was tendered out to private agencies, who have also been made responsible for their operation and maintenance for the first 5 years. Third Party Inspection Agencies have been further onboard for monitoring the quality of the schemes.

Though 100% coverage of all rural households in Jharkhand as well as the entire country was originally planned to be achieved in 2024, progress has been slow. Recently, government of India has extended the implementation of JJM till December 2028. At present, a total of about 3 million FHTCs yet to be provided in the villages - a target now expected to be achieved by the end of 2028. The state government is further involved in the process of enhancing the sustainability of the JJM schemes through the formulation of an Operation and Maintenance Policy. This policy considers essential aspects such as interventions for improving source sustainability and community mobilization for the collection of user charges so that VWSCs or user groups can take over the responsibility of managing their own schemes at the end of 5 years. Operation and maintenance of JJM schemes is further supported by the Fifteenth Finance Commission which has earmarked 60% of its funds for drinking water and sanitation at all tiers of its allocation - village, block and district. Additionally, several districts in Jharkhand have District Mineral Fund Trust (DMFT) and an untied fund that is being utilized to bridge gaps in the sustainability of the schemes.

JJM is undoubtedly a highly ambitious program, but the completion of its implementation and subsequent sustainability of its village-based water supply schemes holds great promise for a sustainable future. It is poised to fulfil the central promise of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by 'Leaving no one behind' with access to safe and affordable drinking water in the state of Jharkhand. This in turn will pave the way for the realization of the human right to water by all. This right, as recognized by the UN General Assembly and affirmed as legally binding upon States through a resolution of the UN Human Rights Council in 2010, entitles everyone, without discrimination, to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use. This includes water for drinking, personal sanitation, washing of clothes, food preparation, and personal and household hygiene. Through JJM, the governments of India and Jharkhand are fulfilling their commitments to adopting appropriate mechanisms to achieve the full realization of the right.

Completion of all the JJM schemes and their sustainable operation and maintenance will enable rural households across the state to achieve drinking water security through fully functional household tap water connections. This, in turn, will unfold multiple pathways towards sustainable development. It will relieve women and children (mostly girls) from the distress caused by fetching heavy loads water from distant sources. As a result, not only will they enjoy improved health through freedom from the risk of physical injuries and related health challenges but also have access to more time for pursuing other vital life activities. For example, women may involve in economically gainful activities, while children (especially girls) will be able to focus on education and enjoy adequate time for leisure and play which is important for their integrated development. The supply of safe and adequate water at home will further contribute to improved health and better hygiene for the entire family, in turn, enabling reduced health expenses, economic prosperity and overall improvement in the quality of life. On the whole, this will facilitate enjoyment of diverse water-related human rights of women, men and children in rural communities, paving the way towards sustainable development.

 

* The authors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to the Special Secretary Dr. Neha Arora, and other officials and functionaries of the Drinking Water and Sanitation Department (DWSD) in Jharkhand who provided information and facilitated the work in different ways. They are also thankful to the Deputy Commissioners and other administrative functionaries in the districts under study. They further appreciate the participation of the members of local communities whose inputs enriched the study.

 

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