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Jharkhand is a state in Eastern India that primarily occupies the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Literally the ‘land of forests', the State is known for its sizeable tribal population who claim to be its first inhabitants. According to the 2011 Census of India, they number a total of 8.65 million, comprising 32 different tribes, that follow diverse livelihoods ranging from hunting-gathering to settled paddy cultivation. Of these, Santal, Munda, Oraon and Ho are the largest. The various tribes claim to be indigenous to the area, each having its own unique history, identity and culture. Geographically the Chota Nagpur Plateau presents a combination of undulating hills, cliffs, valleys, lush forests, and dynamic flow of hill-streams, springs and waterfalls, which together create a captivating yet challenging landscape. What is common to the resident tribal groups in this land is their ability to survive and thrive in these rugged terrains. Their different livelihoods and lifestyles reflect their diverse adaptations which, in turn, speak volumes about their ingenuity and knowledge regarding the local geography, climate and biodiversity. At the core lies their repertoire of simple but reliable solutions that are essentially nature-based and span diverse aspects of life. One such solution concerns their drinking water needs. The deep knowledge and understanding of the tribals regarding their local water wealth has led them to create efficient and sustainable nature-based drinking water sources based on springs that abound in the slopes and valleys of this ancient plateau. These drinking water sources are called ‘chua’ in the common Sadri (or Nagpuri) parlance, also known by a diversity of names in the local tribal dialects. The name ‘Chua’ derives from the word ‘choona’ – which means seepage. Thus, Chua is perceived as a place where water seeps out through a rock fracture or opening in the ground (spring), from where the emergent water is generally harnessed directly or through a dug-out hole in the ground. This structure may be lined with stones, wood or simply left earthen. The spring flow mainly comprises percolated rainwater available in shallow aquifers. This photo story seeks to visually showcase the time-tested tribal wisdom concerning spring-based drinking water management in Jharkhand. This is attempted by exploring the tradition of Chua among one of the larger settled agriculturalists - the Mundas – who excel in the art of constructing these structures and continue to extensively use and maintain them as drinking water sources. The Mundari term for Chua is ‘Daarhi’, which is believed to have its roots in the Mundari word ‘da’ which means water. Such springs abound in the lower terraces in the Munda agricultural landscapes called ‘don’. The Daarhi is developed as a perennial drinking water source by digging a shallow vertical hole at the spring location and adding a wooden or stone lining inside to prevent collapse. When the lining is wooden, it is referred to as ‘Kukuru Daarhi’ while a stone-lined one is called ‘Paata Daarhi’. Daarhi is not only a drinking water source but serves other important functions. Household utensils can be cleaned at the site, but at a safe distance. The Daarhi also serves as an important social venue where women and girls meet and chat, discussing a diversity of personal and public matters. Further, it is a ritual venue where one of the Munda deities called Ikir Bonga is believed to have a seat and is worshipped on specific occasions. This photo story elaborates how the Mundas create, use, and manage Daarhi as a sustainable nature-based solution for drinking water. It presents the case of a Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village and a Paata Daarhi in Kudda village, both located in Khunti district, Jharkhand. The title photo depicts women and young girls, the domestic water managers in Munda society, joyfully gathered around their Kukuru Daarhi, which has reliably fulfilled their drinking water needs across generations. Their smiles reveal pride in their heritage, especially as newer government-installed water supply technologies present uncertainties and failures.

 

 

 

A Kukuru Daarhi nestled in the Don fields of Jiuri village

 

Daarhis in Munda villages are found in ‘don’ fields, which are the lowland terraced fields lying in depressions between hills and ridges. The lowland terraces in general retain moisture or even water for considerably long periods of time, as these are often fed by underground springs. The local Munda community has good knowledge of the location, yield and life spans of these springs and some of the perennial ones have been developed into Daarhis. As mentioned before, a Daarhi having a wooden lining is called ‘Kukuru’ Daarhi, an example of which is seen in the photo above. A circular cemented platform with low parapet has been added in recent times to improve cleanliness and prevent unwanted puddles from the spill water.

 

 

 

A closer view of the above Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

The name Kukuru Daarhi is derived from the Mundari word ‘kokro’ which means the natural hollow of a tree inside which birds, snakes, or other small animals may take shelter. The wooden lining in Kukuru Daarhi is obtained by fixing a hollow tree trunk inside the earthen hole dug around the emergent spring. It could be naturally hollow from the start or manually chiseled out for the purpose. A variety of locally available larger tree species are considered appropriate by the Mundas for this purpose. These include ‘Jamun’ (Syzygium cumini), ‘Mahua’ (Madhuca longifolia), ‘Sakhua’ (Shorea robusta) and ‘Dahu’ (Artocarpus lacoocha). The Kukuru Daarhi seen in the above photo has been crafted using a Jamun tree trunk.

 

 

 

Profile view of the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

The characteristics of a Kukuru Daarhi are greatly influenced by the tree trunk used in its construction. These trunks can vary in size, with diameters ranging from just about one foot to larger sizes. The above Kukuru Daarhi features a trunk from an older Jamun tree, which has a diameter of roughly 3 feet. Jamun trees are also known for their strength and water resistance. It appears that the Munda ancestors possessed knowledge about these qualities and therefore chose this Jamun trunk to construct this Daarhi eight generations ago and this is said to have happened about 200 years ago. Despite its age, the Daarhi continues to remain robust and functional.

 

 

 

Front view of the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village showing its structure

 

The height of the Kukuru Darhi showcased in this photo story is about 3 feet. The wooden parapet is quite thick, and a small window is carved into the front side to facilitate the user in drawing water. The bottom of the window has a broader ledge, providing space for keeping buckets and water containers. It is truly awe-inspiring to imagine the process by which the massive Jamun trunk was cut down and transported, meticulously shaped to precise dimensions, hollowed out to meet user needs, and carefully positioned to ensure its undisturbed existence for two centuries. This underscores the profoundness of Munda knowledge and craftsmanship, along with the efficiency of their tools.

 

 

 

Clean water available at ground level inside the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

The Kukuru Daarhi at Jiuri is fed by a rich underground spring. It has a depth of about 5 feet and water remains available at ground level round the year. The Daarhi has an approximate water holding capacity of more than 1000 liters, and it begins to overflow when left unused for several hours. Jamun wood is reputed for its therapeutic properties, which helps keep water clean by inhibiting the growth of bacteria and insects. As a result, the interior of the Daarhi and the water it holds remains naturally clean. In addition, just like every Daarhi, it is cleaned annually on the occasion of Sarhul festival to eliminate any possible fungus and moss growing on the walls and other kinds of impurities. In fact, depending on the kind of wood used and the local conditions, some Daarhis need more frequent cleaning to ensure the upkeep of water quality. The user community, both women and men, are jointly responsible for cleaning and maintenance of their Daarhi and decide upon the specific schedule. Member households contribute with labor, material and financial resources as required.

 

 

 

A magnificent Paata Daarhi situated amidst Don fields of Kudda village

 

When stones are used for lining the walls of the earthen hole dug around a feeder spring, the resultant drinking water source is called ‘Paata Daarhi’. The Mundari word ‘paata’ means strengthening a wall using stones. As with Kukuru Daarhis, these too have been constructed inside Don fields where perennial spring flows were discovered. In recent years, the area surrounding Paata Daarhis and their parapets have been cemented with the purpose of ensuring cleanliness at the site as well as enhancing the life of the structures. The wall of the above Paata Daarhi is about 1.5 feet high and 1.5 feet wide, while the platform around on the ground is approximately 4 feet wide.

 

 

 

A view of the Paata Daarhi in Kudda village seen from the opposite side

 

Unlike Kukuru Daarhis, Paata Daarhis face no external limitation regarding their width. Hence, these tend to be wider than their wooden counterparts. As a thumb rule, the width should be such that one or two people can enter the earthen hole when dug and comfortably carry out the stone-lining task. Therefore, compared to the Kukuru Daarhi presented previously, the Paata Daarhi depicted in the above photo is large, with a diameter of nearly 8 feet.

 

 

 

Closeup of the above Paata Daarhi in Kudda village revealing its stony base

 

The overall dimensions of a Paata Daarhi may be influenced by the factor of local stratigraphy as well. If the soil depth is low due to a rather shallower rocky layer, then the Daarhi’s diameter needs to be large to accommodate the emerging water volume. Conversely, if the soil layer is deep enough, then a smaller and deeper structure can work. The Paata Daarhi depicted above is quite shallow because of a solid rock at an average depth of about 2 feet from the ground level. Its large diameter balances the shallowness of depth, and consequently, its capacity is more than 2800 liters. The feeder spring's discharge is substantial, causing the Daarhi to frequently overflow, with the excess water flowing into nearby agricultural fields.

 

 

 

Quenching thirst with water drawn from the Kukuru Daarhi at Jiuri village

 

Drinking water supply is the major function of the Munda Daarhis, and their water is considered to possess unmatched drinking water qualities in terms of taste, smell and clarity. It is characterized as ‘sweet’, ‘odorless’, ‘colorless’ and ‘clear’, besides being cool. Thus, this water is seen to quench thirst very efficiently. The users often draw a distinction between Daarhi water and that from other drinking water sources such as the handpump or piped water supply and show a clear preference for Daarhi water based on the above attributes. This water is used at home for drinking as well as food preparation.

 

 

 

Extracting water with ease from the Kukuru Daarhi at Jiuri village

 

Extracting water from a Daarhi is generally an easy task because the water level inside is high, as illustrated in the above photo. When the authors visited the area during the dry season (in the month of March), the water level was close to the ground. A window cut in the wood (in the case of Kukuru Daarhi) or a low height parapet (Paata Daarhi) further facilitates the task.

 

 

 

Filtering drinking water using a cloth filter at the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

Drinking water collection is the most important task at a Daarhi, and Munda women and girls display great care about the quality of the water collected. While filling their drinking water pots, they pour the water taken from the Daarhi through a piece of cloth stretched over the mouth of the pot. It is common knowledge among them that this process helps remove larger contaminants and some of the suspended silt and solids, while also destroying some pathogens.

 

 

Pots being quickly filled with filtered drinking water at the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

Daarhis often have large water holding capacity, or high discharge, or both. Consequently, one Daarhi is capable of fulfilling the drinking water needs of a substantial number of households. For example, the Kukuru Daarhi at Jiuri village supplies water to as many as 65 households. Yet we were told at every Daarhi visited, big or small, that it never dries up. Even at the peak of the summer season, the water recharge may only slow down.

 

 

 

Collecting water in the middle of the day from Kukuru Daarhi at Jiuri village

 

In most households, water is collected twice in the day – morning and late afternoon. That collected in the morning is used for fulfilling drinking as well as cooking needs during the day, while water collected in the late afternoon is meant for use through night. Sometimes, the water storage may need to be refurbished in-between, as attempted by the lady in the above photo.

 

 

 

Young girls cleaning utensils near the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

Cleaning of domestic utensils is allowed near Daarhis. However, it is absolutely forbidden to wash clothes or bathe at this water source. Women and girls visit the Daarhi in great numbers in the morning and late afternoon with head loads of used utensils, scrubbing and washing them using the Daarhi water. Besides ash, using detergent as a cleaning agent is allowed, but the task must be carried out at a safe distance so that the water does not get polluted. Nowadays, a cemented platform is frequently built around the Daarhi to improve hygiene and prevent the formation of water pools. An additional parapet around the cemented platform may also be constructed, as seen in the above photo, which serves multiple functions. These could include its use as a platform to conveniently scrub utensils on, or keep water pots or other stuff on, or even as a sitting place to rest and chat.

 

 

 

Women from different communities sharing joyous moments at the Paata Daarhi of Kudda village

 

Access to a Munda Daarhi is not exclusive to only Munda women and girls nor to only the residents of the village to which it belongs. According to local norms, a Daarhi can be shared by all inhabitants who reside closest to it, irrespective of village or ethnic boundaries. The Paata Daarhi at Kudda is shared by households located nearest to it which lie not only within Kudda but also the neighboring locality of Jiuri village. Further, the Jiuri users are mainly from the Ghasi community who live close by.

 

 

 

A Munda lady waiting patiently as a Ghasi woman fetches drinking water from the Paata Daarhi at village Kudda

 

While no one is excluded from using the Munda Daarhis, the only consideration is that different ethnic groups take turns at procuring water, as seen in the above photo. Also illustrated is the concern for the quality of drinking water that is procured. While one of the ways of water filtration has been presented earlier, this photo depicts a second way. While extracting drinking water from a Daarhi, a cloth may be directly placed over the mouth of the container being used. The benefits are similar to the first method.

 

 

 

Filtering drinking water on the cemented parapet of the Paata Daarhi in Kudda village

 

The parapet of Paata Daarhis may be wide enough to accommodate water pots to rest while filling them or even for the user to sit and draw water. An illustration of this function can be seen in the photo above.

 

 

 

Progressing home with a potful of filtered drinking water procured from the Paata Daarhi in Kudda village

 

 

 

Preparing to return home after completion of morning chores at the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

Every morning and late afternoon, cleaning of the utensils and filling of pots with drinking water from the Daarhi comprise routine chores for women and girls. The Daarhi is an important social venue where women and girls joyfully chat while carrying out their routines, enjoying the moments in the company of their friends and relatives. At the end, everyone prepares to head home, as seen in the photo above. Also, as mentioned earlier, the Daarhi is an important ritual venue where the Munda deity called Ikir Bonga is venerated by the people. Three important occasions for this purpose include, first, worship by a newly married bride after her arrival in husband’s village; second, by a new mother as part of the purificatory ritual after childbirth; and third, after the annual cleaning of the Daarhi just before the Sarhul festival.

 

 

 

Ready to return home with drinking water from the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

 

 

Returning home with drinking water for the day collected from the Kukuru Daarhi in Jiuri village

 

As mentioned before, Daarhis in Munda villages are located amidst lowland paddy fields, and this generally requires a walk from the habitation. The actual distance varies from case to case, but obviously it involves time and effort. However, the reward for this effort is so sweet that visiting the Daarhi for the morning and late afternoon chores is seen as a part of daily routine by the women and girls. In villages that continue to have functional Daarhis, ‘modern’ water sources such as handpumps or piped water supplies are still utilized for only bathing, washing and cleaning or for drinking water supply to animals. Here it will be worthwhile to mention that the traditional water sources in Munda villages for washing and bathing are ponds, that could be spring-fed or rainwater-based.

 

 

 

 

 

Through the example of Munda Daarhi, this photo story illustrates the value of tribal wisdom in sustainable drinking water management through centuries. The Daarhi presents several merits that are important from the perspective of sustainable development as well as exercise of the human right to water. The Munda Daarhi is a highly sustainable drinking water source, considered along all the 3 pillars – environmental, economic and social. Environmentally, it is a robust nature-based solution that depends upon natural water sources (springs) and processes to address the societal need of drinking water access. The springs are regularly recharged in nature through rainwater percolation. Both wooden and stone-lined versions of the technology are constructed using local and naturally available material. Local grounding of the technology, resources and skills further makes it economically sustainable as no external dependence is involved. On the social front, the locally anchored knowledge and skills is robust because it is time-tested and hence credible, also produced and practiced in a socially legitimate way. The decentralized institutional setup empowers the local user community for decisions regarding creation, repair and management of the technology.

Such robust knowledge and sustainable technology further enable the users to enjoy their human right to water. As recognized by the United Nations (UN), this right entitles everyone to have access to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable water for personal and domestic use. Within the scope of this framework, the water supply from Daarhis is 'sufficient' not only for drinking and food preparation, but also for domestic use (cleaning of utensils). It is also 'continuous' in terms of the regularity of supply so that it is sufficient for these uses. Further, the water supply from Daarhis is regarded by the community as ‘clean‘, ‘safe’ and ‘healthy’. It is of an acceptable color, odor and taste and in fact the preferred water used for drinking and food preparation, compared to any other source. Further, the location of Daarhis in agricultural fields, at a considerable distance from the village habitation, makes them safe from coliform bacteria, which is indicated by the absence of any water-borne diseases reported by the users. Being mainly rainwater-based and sourced from shallow aquifers, safety from chemical contaminants, notably iron, fluoride, arsenic and salinity, is also indicated. Finally, the Daarhis provide physical access of water to everyone who reside close by, without discrimination on any grounds such as sex, age, religion, social or other status, and the water is sufficient, safe and acceptable to everyone. Further, being free of any cost in procurement, and incurring low costs in creation, repair and maintenance at community level, these are highly affordable for the users. Additionally, being decentralized and community managed, every user household enjoys the opportunity to seek, receive and impart information concerning any issues facing the source.

The merits described above with respect to Munda Daarhis are closely shared by Chuas in general in Jharkhand. The authors of this article have traveled extensively through six districts, namely Dumka, Gumla, Khunti, Latehar, Seraikela-Kharsawan and West Singhbhum, and witnessed many Chuas that are several generations old, and continue to efficiently serve the local communities, reliably fulfilling their needs and aspirations regarding drinking water. The merits of the Chuas as drinking water supply systems closely align with the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 that focuses on ensuring availability and sustainable management of water. These directly support Target 6.1 of this framework which aims to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. Further, unlike the newer state-initiated approaches that present a high risk of overexploiting available freshwater resources through extensive piped water schemes, these spring-based decentralized water supply systems strongly support Target 6.4 which emphasizes water-use efficiency across all sectors and sustainable withdrawals. Finally, these also closely align with Target 6.b which aims to support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water management.

It is unfortunate that the merits of these highly sustainable yet simple spring-based solutions for drinking water in the tribal pockets remain neglected in the State-driven water policy circles. The Chuas exist today mainly because of ‘bottom-up’ community-initiated efforts and interest in upkeep of the tradition through repairs and regular cleaning. Very few such spring sources have been repaired or improved using government funds. The Chua continues to be the preferred drinking water source even in those tribal villages where household tap connections have been provided. And in the event of piped water supply failures, which are not infrequent, reverting to these sources becomes essential. Hence, there is a need to place clear policy emphasis on the creation, rejuvenation and maintenance of these sources in tribal and mixed population villages. Also, given their rather remote placement from the habitation across rugged uneven terrains, there is need for policy focus on means for improving the ease of accessibility to these sources. Also, in some cases, spring-based drinking water sources have started to provide low yield due to unthoughtful landscape changes and climate change impacts. In order to address this challenge, adoption of measures such as springshed management would be a welcome step towards upkeeping the spring discharge.

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